International Legal Research Environmental Law tab
Convention on Biodiversity, 1760 U.N.T.S. 79, 143; 31 I.L.M. 818 (1992) (CBD). The CBD is the only global and comprehensive agreement addressing all different aspects of biological diversity with the objective to conserve its intrinsic value. The CBD was prepared under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The CBD can be classified as a framework agreement. The States Parties have agreed upon seven themes: land, forest, inland waters, islands, marine and coastal and mountain. In 2002, 10 years after the adoption of the CBD, the parties agreed upon a 2010 Biodiversity Target. From a legal perspective, nonbinding targets cannot be enforced and are not subject to compliance control. While the CBD requires reporting, it has no enforcement mechanism. The best multilateral instrument cannot be successful, if political will is lacking. See Nele Matz Luck, International Protection of Biological Diversity, MPEPIL (last updated Dec. 2008).
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), 27 U.S.T. 1087; 993 U.N.T.S. 243. CITES entered into force on 1 July 1975, and currently has a near-universal membership of 182 States.CITES regulates global market access for wildlife specimens, live or dead animals and plants as well as their parts and derivatives, by subjecting all border-crossing trade to mandatory licensing on the basis of permits issued by the exporting country, and in exceptional cases to additional licensing by the importing country. All Member States have a duty to enact and enforce the terms of the treaty by national laws and to provide periodic trade data and reports on national implementation. Noncompliance with CITES can result in trade sanctions, including embargos. CITES implementation occurs at the domestic level, with national authorities applying and enforcing international norms against individuals and corporate entities.See Peter Sand, International Protection of Endangered Species, MPEPIL (March, 2017).
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 1771 U.N.T.S. 107, 165; S. Treaty Doc No. 102-38 (1992)
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, TIAS No. 11,097; 1513 UNTS 323